Skills for learning : a day in the life of a college student

The learning skills used by students at a technical college to fully participate in their classes were the focus of this investigation. Researchers shadowed two full-time students for one full day as they each went to their classes in a technical college in Qatar. An observation schedule was used to record what students did in their classes (for example: solve problems, listen to the teacher, ask questions). At the end of the day students were interviewed and asked to comment on the importance of the learning skills that they used, how they built the skills they needed and how to become a better student. It was found that students used a variety of learning skills throughout a typical day and that they had their own ideas about learning. The learning skills the two students used most during their classes were not the same, owing partly to the format of the courses and partly to personal learning approach. The four learning skills students identified as most important were: understand and apply concepts to current work; concentrate and maintain focus; follow written instructions; and ask questions. The information gathered in this investigation can be used to inform students, instructors and course planners about the skills students need to be active participants in their classes and to ensure that educators support the development of required learning skills. Introduction Educators should be aware of the skills today’s students actually use as they participate in classes and of how to support students as they develop the skills needed to participate fully in their learning. Learners need developed reading, listening, note-taking, questioning and thinking skills. Educators have an obligation to be deliberate and teach students the skills they need to succeed in learning, not only in acquiring content knowledge, but also in engaging and participating fully in the learning process. Learning is also supported by sub-skills such as keeping class notes organized by date and topic, using headings and keywords in note taking, highlighting new vocabulary and recording questions for further investigation. Basic study skills often become such an ingrained part of ‘student-ness’ that they are later taken for granted. It is important for educators to reflect on the teaching-learning dynamic. This research was inspired by Grant Wiggins’ (2014) blog post A Veteran Teacher Turned Coach Shadows 2 students for 2 Days – A Sobering Lesson Learned. We wondered what skills today’s college students need to be active and effective learners. We also wondered whether students had any notion of having been consciously taught or encouraged to develop those skills. Our curiosity prompted this small research project. In order to clarify what skills our students use in their classes and to help instructors at our college support student skill development, we investigated what students actually do during their classes. We also asked students to identify which learning skills they thought were important and for their advice on how a student might improve their learning. We (two researchers) each shadowed one student over their regular day. We went to all the students’ classes and observed. We were not concerned with the details of the course content but with what the


Introduction
Educators should be aware of the skills today's students actually use as they participate in classes and of how to support students as they develop the skills needed to participate fully in their learning.Learners need developed reading, listening, note-taking, questioning and thinking skills.Educators have an obligation to be deliberate and teach students the skills they need to succeed in learning, not only in acquiring content knowledge, but also in engaging and participating fully in the learning process.Learning is also supported by sub-skills such as keeping class notes organized by date and topic, using headings and keywords in note taking, highlighting new vocabulary and recording questions for further investigation.Basic study skills often become such an ingrained part of 'student-ness' that they are later taken for granted.
It is important for educators to reflect on the teaching-learning dynamic.This research was inspired by Grant Wiggins' (2014) blog post A Veteran Teacher Turned Coach Shadows 2 students for 2 Days -A Sobering Lesson Learned.We wondered what skills today's college students need to be active and effective learners.We also wondered whether students had any notion of having been consciously taught or encouraged to develop those skills.Our curiosity prompted this small research project.
In order to clarify what skills our students use in their classes and to help instructors at our college support student skill development, we investigated what students actually do during their classes.We also asked students to identify which learning skills they thought were important and for their advice on how a student might improve their learning.
We (two researchers) each shadowed one student over their regular day.We went to all the students' classes and observed.We were not concerned with the details of the course content but with what the

Literature review
Students need skills that support their learning and help them participate fully in their learning to be successful at school (Murray & Nallaya, 2016;Turner, Peak, Flanders & King, 2013).Although terminology is not always identical, the general topic of learning skills has received significant attention from educators and researchers alike.Learning skills can simply be defined as those skills which are necessary for students to succeed in studies (Center for Student Success, 2007).Identifying and defining the skills that students use are only the precursors to any investigation of how students acquire skills or use them effectively and successfully (Prevatt, Li, Welles, Festa-Dreher, Yelland & Lee, 2011).
College students today need to develop reading, note-taking and test-taking skills (Ellis & Toft, 2006) if they enter college without sufficient proficiency in these skills (Murray & Nallaya, 2016).These skills support all studies: reading and note-taking are required in every subject, even in online courses where books may be replaced by online articles, e-books and by a variety of media.Note-taking helps students gather important information that they can review later or study further.Test-taking is still an essential part of formal education so test-taking skills are also a necessity.
Students also need essential literacies which include critical thinking, communication and technology (Ellis & Toft, 2006;Fallows & Steven, 2000; International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE), 2015; Keane, Keane & Blicblau, 2016;Milne, 2000;Pollock & Ford, 2009).Critical thinking and communication are important not only during studies but also because many jobs require such skills.
Students are often expected to think critically, make comparisons, take decisions, review and critique their work and contribute to group or class discussions.Students also need to be effective listeners, speakers and general communicators.Skills such as being able to use technology to communicate, and to access and use information effectively are important for students during their studies as well as for their lives after graduation in the modern work-place (ISTE, 2015).

Methodology
In order to clarify what skills CNA-Q students use and need in order to participate in their classes and to help identify these skills so that instructors can support student skill development, we decided to investigate what students actually did during their classes.Researchers shadowed students each over their regular day (see Appendix 1: Student schedules on the observation day).

Participants
Volunteer recruitment was done by the Student Affairs Office, which sent out a request for volunteers by email.Research participants included two second-year students, one male (Fahad) and one female (Naila); these names are pseudonyms.Naila was enrolled full-time in Engineering and Fahad was in the Information Technology program.Students were 21 and 22 years old respectively.
Both students reported themselves as being active in college life, eager to volunteer and having 'good' marks (instructors confirmed the latter).They were both also self-confident and out-going.

Ethics
Students consented to be observed and interviewed, and their instructors agreed to allow the researchers to conduct observations during regular class time.Students and instructors were guaranteed anonymity; however there were practical limitations on this because all class members were fully aware that an outside observer joined their class.
It was explained that instructors would not be identified, critiqued, or reported on in any way and that there were no special requirements or expectations for the class.The instructors of the students' classes had no responsibility connected to this research.Anonymity for instructors was required to eliminate pressure to perform in a particular way, to remove fear of judgment or embarrassment and to ensure classes were not 'staged' for observers.The focus was on the student, not the teacher.
It is not uncommon at the college for a class to have a visitor but it is somewhat unusual; so anonymity of all participants is compromised.All students in the class could see that the observer joined their class and was watching one of their classmates.No information was offered to other class members about the research but it is possible that student participants in this research could be identified later by members of their class who remember an observer visiting their class; the student volunteers were aware of this possibility.It is less likely that instructors might be identified, but it is also possible; the instructors were also aware of this possibility.

Research design
This study follows a phenomenological research design (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2000;Crotty, 1998;Lester, 1999).Qualitative research such as this involves "trying to understand the essence of a phenomenon by examining the views of people who have experienced that phenomenon" (Boyd, 2016).In this case, college students' experiences and views were investigated, using data from observations and interviews.

Procedure
Each researcher observed one student in class over the course of one full day of normal classes.Students had been told that observers wanted to see what they did on a normal day in their classes and the researchers did not want to see anything special, just what normally happened.The students participated in classes as they usually would.Observers noted the kinds of learning activities in their classes and the skills required of students to participate in those activities (e.g.learning activity: lecture; skills required: listening, note-taking, asking/answering questions).Researchers recorded what students were required to do, or asked to do and the length of time each student spent using learning skills.During the observations the researchers did not interact with the participants, with other students or with the instructor.
Researchers developed and used an observation schedule titled "What do students have to do during classes?" for note-taking purposes (see Appendix 2).This observation schedule was informed by Wieman and Gilbert's Teaching Practices Inventory (2014) as the starting point for the types of student behaviours that might be observed.Wieman and Gilbert's inventory was developed for use in science and mathematics courses to allow comparisons of teaching.The inventory was selected because it was designed for recording observable behaviour in active and collaborative learning environments, relevant in our context, and allowed modification as needed.
The list of observed behaviors provided in the original inventory was modified by adding and deleting items as students were observed throughout the day.A number of learning skills were used concurrently; however they were recorded individually as separate skills because they were clearly identified on the inventory.
Following the classroom observations, each researcher interviewed the student they had observed.Each student was shown the list of the skills that they had demonstrated over the course of the day.The list of observed skills was presented to students on strips of paper (one skill per strip and in random order).
Students were asked to comment on the importance of each of the skills and to rank the skills from most important to least important.Researchers took extensive notes during the interviews and photographed the final rank ordered strips for the record.
Students were also asked how confident they were that they had (or were able to use) the skills required in their classes.We also asked the students to identify any specific learning skills they had been taught (either formally or informally) over their lifetime as students, and to suggest advice for other students on how to become a good learner.We hoped Naila and Fahad would be willing and able to give advice since both had a high grade point average (GPA) and described themselves as good students.Research on the characteristics of successful learners indicates that 'commitment to learning' (Miura, 2011) and a positive mindset (Stoke & Burke, 2013) are important characteristics and that successful and unsuccessful learners use different cognitive, affective, and psychomotor-based strategies learning strategies (Archer, Chetty & Prinsloo, 2014;Bleicher, 2014;Canpolat, Kuzu, Yildirim & Canpolat, 2015;Hernández, 2002;Poole, 2014).

Data analysis
Data from observations and interviews was reviewed for each student separately and then further analysis was completed to find similarities and differences.
The procedure for data analysis was as follows:  Calculate percentage of time each observed learning skill used per class for each student.An estimate of how much time was spent on each skill was made using the time notations in the observation notes (e.g.9:00 -9:05).This was used to calculate percentage of time per class that each skill was used.
 Rank observed skills from most to least observed for each student (in terms of the percentage of time spent per skill).
 Review and compare observation data to identify similarities and differences between the students.
 Review and compare each student's rankings of the skills they each reported as important to their learning and academic success.
 Review data for each interview question for each student.
 Compare interview data to identify similarities and differences between the students.

Observations
Observations revealed differences in the learning skills used most by each of the two students in their classes.These differences may not be attributable to student choice but to subject matter, discipline, course requirements or activity design.In general, Naila spent more time listening than using other learning skills in her Engineering classes while Fahad spent more time completing assignments (i.e.coding and practical computing assignments) than using other learning skills during his Information Technology classes.For Naila, concentrating, maintaining focus and listening were observed as the learning skills used most (and concurrently) during the day (see Table 1).Fahad spent most of his time using three learning skills concurrently: understanding and applying concepts to current work; solving problems, finding errors and troubleshooting; and using a computer with specialized software.See Appendix 3 for a complete list of learning skills observed and Appendix 4 for a complete list of learning skills in order of time spent using them.

Interviews
In the interviews, students identified many learning skills as being important to their learning and explained why those skills were important.Students also shared their ideas about what skills students need and how they can build these skills.Student answers to the interview questions are summarized below.
How important are these skills?
Naila and Fahad sorted and grouped skills in order of importance, grouping some together as having equal importance.The common learning skills that both students identified as important were: 'understand and apply concepts to current work', 'concentrate and maintain focus' and 'ask questions'.Fahad ranked 'ask questions' higher than did Naila.This may have been because of the pattern of his day.He was actively completing assignments that required solving problems and coding during his Information Technology classes and he needed to ask questions to continue his work.Naila spent much of her time listening to her instructors so waiting to ask a question would not have been as pressing.
Another difference between the two students was that Naila gave a succinct list of skills while Fahad reported many skills as important.the time students were observed using those skills in lessons , see Appendix 6 (Naila) and Error!Reference source not found.(Fahad).
Why are the highest level skills important?
This question was asked after sorting was complete.Naila's explanation of why these skills were important focused on her needs when in a classroom learning environment.She reported that concentrating and maintaining focus is important because concepts are technical and understanding the relationship between concepts can be difficult.She reported that losing focus might create mistakes later when attempting to apply learning in assignments or projects.She said that asking questions can help focus because this requires thinking about the course material and making connections.Things become clearer when the instructor answers questions.
Fahad's explanations of why these skills were important were also very straightforward.Fahad reported that understanding and applying concepts is important because if you do not understand you will not be able to apply knowledge and skills elsewhere.Memorizing is not enough, especially in Information Technology, in which logic is key to the discipline.Solving problems was explained as the best way to understand, and he said that it was important to learn from mistakes, that correcting errors helped him to learn and to build the essential skill of being able to troubleshoot.He also said that completing assignments is necessary to prepare for exams.Using computers and software is necessary for his course of study.
Looking at the list of skills ranked second, Naila said it was to work independently.Fahad said it was important to: answer and ask questions to stay involved and focused; listen so it was not necessary to ask questions again; follow instructions to assist in finding the best way to approach a task; and explain problems and give details to help others understand and 'sometimes to understand ourselves' In your opinion what are three things that students can do to become better students?
Naila suggested three things students can do to become better students: attend classes, ask questions, and talk with other students.She recognized that attending class was important for learning.Technical or complicated material is difficult to learn independently and the expertise of the instructor often provides context for new concepts.Naila also felt that asking questions allowed students to clarify their thinking and make connections between ideas.In addition, talking with other students during class also provided a way to process new information and apply it.
Like Naila, Fahad recommended that students attend classes.He felt attendance is important because much content is missed whenever a student is absent.His other recommendations for becoming a better student were to listen and to practice.Listening is important because students have to pay attention, focus and take notes or critical ideas will be missed.Practicing is necessary both during and after class.Learning is assisted by repetition and practice.
How did you build the skills you need?How did you learn to be a strong student?
Naila did not identify that she had consciously or formally developed learning skills in any context.As she reflected, she referenced older siblings who had given her tips for how to get through some particular courses when she was in grade school; otherwise, she did not associate learning to learn with a particular person or a particular setting.She attributed her success as a student to her own drive to perform well.
Fahad attributed his learning skills to a credit course he had taken on "Effective Learning" which focused on how to learn, take notes and study.He said that although he had known the importance of learning, note-taking and studying before taking the course, he had not really applied these skills and described himself as a "bad student".Later he applied the learning skills to assist him in pursuing a scholarship.He found the skills actually helped him in practical ways and he began to consciously focus on his learning.Today he is an outstanding student, according to both himself and his instructors, and this is substantiated by his high marks and class standing.

Discussion of the results
The skills that the students were observed using most in their classes and that they identified as important were sometimes the same.In Naila's case there were two learning skills among those she was observed using most that she identified as being important to learning (see Table 3).These were to concentrate and maintain focus and to ask questions.For Fahad there were four learning skills among the skills he was observed using most that he also identified as important (see Table 3).These were: solve problems, find errors, and troubleshoot; understand and apply concepts to current work; complete assignments; and be organized (including managing files, document records, and course handouts).The match between learning skills most used and students' perceptions of the skills' importance may be due to the students' recognition of what they are often required to do in class.
There was not a complete match between the skills used by students and their perceptions of what skills were important.Perhaps this is due to a difference between what instructors consider important (and therefore make time for in class) and what students consider important.For example, instructors may feel that listening to an explanation of a concept or completing assignments is important and so they plan activities for students with this in mind.Other possible reasons for differences between the use of skills students felt were important and the skills that they used are: student behaviour or choices made at the time of the observations, nature of the course work or the subject matter, design of course activities or course or the class schedule.
Although there were no obvious cultural elements noted during class observations, one of the students spontaneously mentioned concerns related to the local context in a Canadian college in Qatar.These were concerns about language and culture.
The challenges of learning in a foreign language pose a barrier for students.English-as-a-foreignlanguage (EFL) students naturally find studying in English a challenge both to understanding and to having the confidence to ask questions or for assistance.In an EFL environment the students' level of English language skill is an important factor that influences the ability to learn and pay attention and the personal confidence to ask questions or display confusion.
In our context, a college in the Middle East where English is the language of instruction, it is essential that students build the English skills necessary to participate in their classes, to learn and to communicate effectively.In all observed classes the students used English in a variety of ways (listening, reading, writing and speaking) but English skills were not measured here as separate skills as they were inseparable from other learning skills (e.g.asking questions, solving problems).
When students first enter the college, their English skills are assessed; and those students who need to improve their English skills take preparatory classes.The students in this study were not in preparatory classes but in regular programs where English is the medium of instruction rather than the focus of instruction.As noted, despite their enrollment in regular programs, one student did mention language skills were an issue and commented that confidence and ability to use English have an impact on students' learning.
Another cultural factor brought up by the same student was cultural differences and how these may affect students' understanding of what the instructor expects.Sometimes students find it difficult to understand assignments, what they must do in class, how to behave, and how to succeed.This can be complicated further when the culture of the instructors and the students are different and assumptions about behavior and products (assignments and expectations about format and content) differ.Of course, this is important for instructors and course designers to take into account when planning or when teaching.
Learning is a complex endeavor, and students use many learning skills.The students did not use the same skills or to the same degree in every class and there were differences between the two students in the learning skills used.In each of Naila's classes she used concrete skills such as reading, and more abstract skills such as decision-making.She did not always recognize that she had or was using these skills for learning.She commented that using such skills was "just the normal thing" students do.
Throughout the day Naila mainly sat and listened.She asked questions and worked alone or with others to solve problems or complete tasks.She also used special computer software to create scenarios and compare them.Fahad solved problems in all his classes and he constantly multi-tasked.He referred to the assignment and handouts provided during the class as well as his course notes, checked for information on the Internet, read, paused to answer questions and/or assist classmates, used a testing/validation tool many times and listened whenever the instructor shared instructions or comments with the class or with him individually.He also stayed on task and focused on an assignment while doing these additional tasks.
As noted earlier, students need to develop basic note-taking and test-taking skills (Ellis & Toft, 2006).These skills were not, however, observed.Neither of the students in this small research project took notes on the observation day although they did refer to notes they had taken earlier.Fahad took temporary notes only (e.g. he copied code into a document so he could refer to it quickly and then deleted it when he was finished with it).In addition, there were no tests administered in any of the classes observed.
Students have their own ideas about how they should learn and what is important.The skills that Naila identified as most important for her learning did not always align with the skills she used most during her classes.For example, she did not always have the opportunity to ask questions.She expressed some frustration with the lack of opportunity in class to apply concepts she had learned.She felt, however, that the level of technical information she needed to perform out of class assignments was high; gleaning as much information as possible from lectures/ verbal instructions helped her feel confident that she could complete out of class assignments to a high standard.
Fahad worked hard to finish each task during class so that he would not have to complete as much work on his own time.He explained this as a practical choice, not a learning choice and he focused on this throughout the day.He worked through his breaks and went directly from one class to the next.Additionally, he did not eat at lunch time as he volunteered at a student event.His focus on assignment completion and his volunteer work at lunch may have contributed to his admission at the end of the day that he was exhausted and had a headache.
Although there were differences regarding what the two students identified as important learning skills, both students identified the four skills below within their top priorities: to understand and apply concepts to current work; to follow written instructions; to ask questions; and to concentrate and maintain focus.The first three of these skills are essential literacies (critical thinking and communication) and match with students' needs (Ellis & Toft, 2006;Fallows & Steven, 2000;Milne, 2000;Pollock & Ford, 2009).Additionally, Fahad used technology most of the day to do his in class work.Naila also used special computer software to create and compare scenarios.This connects well with the development of skills and knowledge needed to learn and to live in a digital society (ISTE, 2015).
It is interesting to note that learning to learn is not always a conscious endeavor.Naila did not identify that she had consciously or formally developed learning skills in any context.On reflection, she recognized that over her time from grade school to college she had developed organizational skills and habits of questioning that had served her well.She saw such development as natural, and considered the alignment between her goals and what needed to be done to reach them as a personal achievement.Fahad, on the other hand, explained in the interview that he had made a conscious effort to become a 'good' learner.When he entered college, he took a required 'student success course' and he credited that course with giving him ideas that he consciously began to apply to his own learning and to improve his learning skills.Thus, it seems likely that although a student like Naila cannot clearly identify or articulate how they develop their learning skills others, like Fahad, may make a conscious effort to improve their skills.

Conclusions
The purpose of this research was to identify the skills students at our college use and need.We investigated what skills our students actually used in their classes.Additionally, we asked students to identify the learning skills they thought were important and for their advice on how a student might improve their learning.
Some of the learning skills that the students in this investigation used and identified as important are consistent with the literature about the skills that college students need to succeed.Critical thinking and problem solving were important and almost equivalent to the importance of the application of knowledge.Collaboration was evident but limited and communication was important but mostly one way, with instructors delivering and students receiving information.There was no real evidence of the use of creative thinking during their classes and no recognition by the students of its importance.It is possible that students were doing more creative thinking outside of class, perhaps during activities such as the voluntary lunchtime event that Fahad took part in.
The information gathered in this investigation about the skills students used during a regular day of classes can be used to inform and guide students so that they identify essential learning skills, inform the college community about the skills that our students need to develop, guide individual instructors who want to scaffold skill development within courses to help students develop learning skills and improve course design so that the development of learning skills is supported.
If students are able to (or are helped to) identify the learning skills they need, they could make deliberate efforts to gain these skills and improve their ability to participate fully in their learning and achieve academic success.
It is the responsibility of the college community to support students' learning.Unfortunately, this support is often limited to courses and specific academic subject matter rather than to the support and development of learning skills.More awareness of student learning needs and skill development will empower individual instructors, curriculum designers, tutors and faculty to develop materials, design courses and provide individual student support to encourage and scaffold learning skill development (Center for Student Success, 2007).
The findings of this small-scale reflective project suggest that CNA-Qatar and other educators can support their students by recognizing that students need a range of learning skills to be able to participate fully in their classes and use different learning skills in their classes as necessitated by the context.Students may spend less time using the learning skills they identify as most important for success and more time using learning skills that their study context requires.As well, it is of interest that students do not always know how they developed their learning skills.Of course, students need support to identify and build the learning skills they need for success and also require 'invisible' support built into their courses and programs to ensure that learning skill development is integral and not supplemental or peripheral to course content.

Table 2 : Learning skills grouped by perceived importance. Learning Skills Identified by Naila Learning Skills Identified by Fahad
Table2shows the learning skills identified by each of the students as having high levels of importance; more detail is given in Appendix 5.For learning skills ranked by students as important compared with MacLeod, C. & Hayden, P. (2016).Skills for learning: a day in the life of a college student.Learning and Teaching in Higher Education: Gulf Perspectives, 13(2).http://dx.doi.org/10.18538/lthe.v13.n2.243 7

Table 3 : Learning skills both used and identified as important.
 Solve problems, find errors and troubleshoot  Understand and apply concepts to current work  Use computer, use specialized software  Complete assignments